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Wednesday 20 November 2013

The ANC has always been an elitist movement

It was very interesting to read an article a few years back in the Daily Dispatch, ANC’S Origins ‘at Bumbane’, 15 August 2011 page 4,DD. Nkosi Mandla Mandela states that the organisation was the brainchild of abaThembu monarch Dalindyebo I and celebrated author Rev Walter. M. Rubusana in 1906. He further states that the abaThembu monarch had always envisioned a formation of an organised movement that represented the people. Rubusana was universally recognized as one of the leading black politicians in South Africa. In this capacity he led the black delegation to London in June of 1909. There are two interesting things to point out in the light of this revelation by Nkosi Mandela. Firstly, at the turn of the 20th century colonial Britain passed the South African act of 1909 following the aftermath of the Anglo-Boer war. This act granted South Africa independence from Britain, maintaining Caucasian political domination through a discretionary electoral system that denied the majority of the people in the land to voter, the African. In 1906, when Dalindyebo and Rubusana and other abaThembu leaders supposedly met, they were aware of the threat of being marginalised by the British and Dutch settler community. It subsequently happened in 1910 when the Union of South Africa was formed. It must be pointed out that there was a legitimate need to organise Africans at this time. The question is who was to do this and how. African leaders and intellectuals including Rubusana were not truly convinced that forums like the All African Convention (AAC) would serve as an organisation that stood for absolute African rights as it was also divided into racial and tribal factions who cultivated elitism. Also, it had in its ranks modern educated men who were not in touch with the people on the ground due to the dehumanising nature of British colonialism. Secondly, then urgency of the African to mobilise against the advent neo-colonial tendencies at the turn of the century had momentum through organisations like the AAC and by 1906 the South African Native Congress (SANC) which had African intellectuals academics, religious leaders and most notably traditional leaders (or their envoys) in their ranks. It was felt that through the SANC, true Africanist stance against the Union of South Africa would be guarded. It must be noted again that the people who had the privilege of being in the leadership roles of the SANC were notably men who were above the ordinary status of the early 20th century African. The men Nkosi Mandla Mandela mentions in the gathering of 1906 were no different. Dalindyebo himself was a king of a Nation, Rubusana a religious leader-academic and author who had been trained and educated by missionaries, Nkosi Mphakanyiswa Mandela was a high ranking traditional leader in the abaThembu nation. When the earlier mentioned events of 1909 and 1910 unfolded in Britain and South Africa respectively, the anticipation by Rubusana and Dalindyebo (and others ) of its consequences by gathering in 1906 led to the subsequent formation of the South African Native National Congress (SANNC) in 1912. Between 1906 and 1912, others had joined its ranks. The Sol Plaaitjies, John Langalibalele Dubes, the Sogas, Jabavaus, Pixley ka Semes and Jolobes were all in one way or another men with elevated social status in those times whether it was academic, religious or traditional/political. Several other young African leaders who had recently returned from university studies in England, Richard Msimang, George Montsioa and Alfred Mangena, and with established leaders of the South African Native Congress engaged to promote the formation of a national organization that would unify various African groups from the former separate colonies, now provinces. This would be the establishment of an elitist organization that would stand as a vanguard of African concerns and views against the formation of the Union of South Africa. This elitist nature of the organization still remains today as some leaders of the organization are biological offspring or a third generation of past leaders of the ANC. The ANC has always been an elitist movement.

Wednesday 13 November 2013

Pre-colonial (informal) education and its significance in the process of teaching and learning and communal knowledge development

Teaching and learning communities did exist here in Africa before colonial conquest. They were holistic, lifelong and utilitarian in nature . These civilisations themselves were present mainly because of the teaching and learning culture that existed amongst the people of this continent .Education had an input from all members of the community and prepares each individual for a particular profession or occupational activity (Adeyinka & Adeyemi, 2002).This Adeyinka & Adeyemi argue, should be the norm in all african societies today.A lot has been written about the kind of teaching and learning that took place here in Africa. Recent literature on the issue raises arguments on impacts of certain influences within education and their effects on present day teaching and learning methods. Precise comprehension of the philosophical aspect of the term education is important when attempting to realise its significance where ever it is practised. The most relevant and basic comprehension in an African and universal context is that: education is a process whereby experienced members of the community/society guide the development of the inexperienced within the culture of society (Adeyinka & Adeyemi, 2002), a method of disseminating cultural values or the acquisition of the art of the utilisation of knowledge (Whitehead, 1962). Now from these perspectives, one now can understand the desired outcome in educational practise. Also, we can argue that schooling and education are two different things. To elaborate, schooling is the practise of being instructed in an environment designed for teaching and learning. Education then becomes the process of guiding the inexperienced outside of the schooling environment but at the same time complementing the curriculum in the classroom. This is to ensure that there is correspondence between what is learnt and what in reality happens in day to day life. It is clear then that African traditional education was not only there to be acquired, but it was actually there to be lived. Children acquired education through the maintenance of and participation in socio-political and religious institutions that ensured effective means of communication between different generations (Boetang, 1983). The actual content of this informal/indigenous knowledge system/traditional education has its roots in the situations (varied) of African societies (Adeyinka & Adeyemi, 2002), from geographical setting, to community environment and also devotional aspects like religion and custom. Out of these curriculum informants, the issue of social impacts seems to carry a lot of weight. Adeyinka and Adeyemi argue that networks of reciprocal relationships that knit the family, clan and tribe together are to a large degree the prime factor in the survival of most traditional African societies. Many methods of teaching and learning within formal and informal education were and still are employed in Africa. In general in Pre-colonial Africa, teaching and learning methods for various disciplines in societies had various characteristics and also significances. Initiation ceremonies were and are still common. One can argue that it took a formalised character somewhat in that it compramised (its content) of teaching and learning of pre-determined material in a specific physical setting (Adeyinka & Adeyemi, 2002).Similarly, amaXhosa of the Eastern Cape practise the tradition of Ulwaluko, a dissemination of knowledge via an ancient sacred rite of passage as initiation of boys into manhood. This practise has its own ways, places, seasons, rules and regulations which when not followed can and does have disastrous consequences. It has its own objectives and purposes, such as moulding boys bbinto men who will become protectors and defenders of the weak and vulnerable, providers of their families and leaders of their communities and nations. It is an endurance “race” whose other purpose is to instil discipline and forbearance, to withstand pain and endure hardship . Here again we see formalised character in traditional dissemination of knowledge. In contrast to this some illiterate African societies employed an informal education system. In these systems, methods of instruction were much more informal and loosely structured or designed, sometimes if not all the time, the distinction between teacher and learner was less distinguishable. Learning was by initiation and observation (Adeyinka & Adeyemi, 2002). The major purpose, yield or outcome of this indigenous development of knowledge base was young adults who understand their history and tradition and also inculcate a culture of socially engaged human being with critical thinking capabilities. It also developed a nature of self-control, endurance and pride in oneself. This then reproduced itself in the whole tribe, nation and thus continent, from one generation to the other. The cycle of knowledge dissemination thus gets completed, without disengaging the people from their own development. Oral Literature is one particular method of transmitting informal education. These have been an integral part of informal education in universal cultures for centuries, an in particular in Africa. Myths, fables, folktales, legends and proverbs served as tools of presenting social situations /values or pedagogic devises. They were sometimes used to teach insistence on justice and a resistance to arbitrariness while maintaining courtesy (Boetang, 1983). A significant contrast between informal and formal education can be distinguished. A synthesis then of the developmental understanding of the two contrasting methods of teaching and learning can be designed into a system that informs curriculum review and renewal processes. A basic example is the understanding that informal folklore story telling as educative devices taught ideal forms of behaviour and morality, rather than formal instruction such as corporal punishment or disciplinary hearings. Another example is the issue of learning by initiation and observation (Adeyinka & Adeyemi, 2002) which develops self control and endurance with contrasting inclination to teaching and learning that is pre determined in nature, hindering freedom of exploration with ideas. Humanising curriculums thus must seek teaching and learning methods that allow developmental approaches.

Thursday 7 November 2013

An overview of the history of education in South Africa

The coming to the fore of formal schooling (particularly in South Africa) led to these indigenous knowledge systems to be deemed informal and backward. In reality, the mass schooling of children in Southern Africa introduced by colonial Britain in the 19th century had a much different purpose to that of the indigenous knowledge systems of pre-colonial time, or that of Dutch introduction in the 17th century. The British formal schooling method has its roots in the Industrial Revolution; therefore this means that the learning and teaching methods were intended to yield workers with specialised skills that were going to supplement industrial demands of the time. Here in South Africa, the discovery of gold, diamonds and other minerals meant that the purpose of knowledge production leaned towards industrial skills production. Formal institutions focused on this, and it must be noted that formal institutions primarily enrolled only the European settler community. However, through missionary work and stations, formal institutions that offered formal education (with formal curriculum and pedagogy) were established. The Lovedale Missionary College and the University College of Fort Hare, as it was known then, are basic examples. The Dutch on the other hand in earlier times (17th century) were interested in basic skills development (for Europeans) and social control (for Africans), clearly the Dutch were not that much interested in developing Africans and their societies with the kind of formal schooling methods they utilised. According to Behr and Macmillan (1966:89), formal elementary education meant instruction in the doctrines of the Dutch Reformed Church. The children learned prayers, passages from the Bible, and the catechism. These they would recite to the teacher. This clearly confirms the argument that the Dutch formal education strategies were aimed at social control for Africans.It is interesting to note that in those first schools in the Cape for slaves, to stimulate the slaves’ attention while at school, and to induce them to learn the Christian prayers, they were promised each a glass of brandy and two inches of tobacco. This is further testimony of the kind of education, curriculum and pedagogy that was used had an impact on the socialisation of individuals. The control of the Cape by the British after 1815 meant that the Cape became part of Britain’s trading empire. As a result, many missionaries came to the Cape and set up mission stations and schools. These schools were set up as part of the missionary activity. Just as it was with the Dutch, education was used as a way of spreading the English language and tradition. More importantly, education was used as a means of social control, and education developed along the lines of social class. The difference is that the British also focused on developing specialised skills (in contrast to the basic skills programme by the 17th century Dutch settlers) for the European settler working class. The abolishment of slavery meant that the British had to find alternative means for labour. Cheap labour was the obvious way to go. It is evident from the above that education helped to create social class divisions between the non-Europeans and generally reinforced their lower class position. However, it is interesting to note that the government of the time often complained that missionary education was too religious and not practical enough. Ideally, the aim of education should be to teach us how to think, rather than what to think - rather to improve our minds, so as to enable us, as the students, to think for ourselves, than to load the memory with thoughts of other men . Seeking to understand transformation in higher education in South Africa is an intricate task given the history of education in South Africa. The current situation concerning education in South Africa is dire. Developments, as far as education is concerned, have not been able to keep up with the demands from industry for skilled labour, hence arguments and dialogue pertaining to skills shortages and the brain-drain crisis. This scenario is not limited to South Africa, in fact, it extends across Africa and beyond. Any meaningful attempts to address this crisis in education should take cognisance of one’s immediate social context, it is thus important to focus on the University of Fort Hare amidst the endeavours in education within the South African context. When one looks at the history of formal education in South Africa with the view that education is a means to provide the nation state with a labour force, it is important to look at factors that influenced the socialisation of individuals as they progressed through the formal education system. Furthermore, it also fitting to investigate the curriculum which was administered to respond to the labour demands, such as specialised skills in a rapidly changing and demanding environment. The discovery of precious minerals brought with it a rapid increase in economic activity and the need for labour, especially specialised labour. Almost all black and previously disadvantaged workers in the mines did unskilled work and at lower rates of pay as compared to their white counterparts. They were controlled by pass laws and the migrant labour system.The old (apartheid) education system was very content driven so the majority of teachers understood the classroom and learning environment in terms of promoting a ‘banking education system’. This refers to teachers being constructed as the all powerful knowers of all the knowledge that the student had to receive (Samuel, 2010, adapted). One of the challenges confronting students in South Africa post liberation is the down-play of the past in an attempt to promote racial integration and democracy. A true liberation of the student needs to happen on both the intellectual and social levels. Developments in the formal schooling system in South Africa, in the colonial as well as the apartheid eras show an inclination towards establishing an unequal social order based on racial discrimination. The obvious truth in this regard, in as far as education is concerned, is that the current state of education in post-apartheid South Africa is far from achieving one of its goals which is social equity. The crisis demands urgent and critical appraisal of the whole enterprise of education. Such an investment requires, first, that education and education policy-making is examined (Kallaway, 1984, adapted). The trajectory of this education system has seen an emergence of a black elite. Prospector and explorer Cecil John Rhodes related to this black elite as a potential obstacle in the total control of the indigenous people.The South African past is an important factor to consider in the present as we seek solutions that are future-oriented. As part of this future-oriented approach is the need to deal with aspects of our past that still haunt us today. Furthermore, the attempt at bringing about transformation in higher education needs to open to a deeper exploration of the relationship, amongst other things, between students, academics and support staff and others (Higher Education Summit, 2010). South Africa is also a multi-racial society with a blend of culture, ethnic groups, and is part of the African continent. This presents a unique mix of variables and factors that, when carefully analysed, should be part of the agenda for curriculum renewal and transformation purposes. There is a call by students to be an integral part of the curriculum renewal and transformation process as part of their own liberation. This liberation will see the students break the ‘chains’ that continue to bind them, from the days of apartheid. Student movements the world over show that students have more than once played a crucial role for the liberation of the oppressed. In an attempt to address this crisis, described in some circles of academia as limitations of post-apartheid education policies, it is interesting to note the devastating effects of apartheid on education and consider the impact this has on the current performance of our education system. It dare be said that the education system in South Africa is not serving the students.